Organizations need talented women in their core jobs, therefore, not only for reasons of social fairness, important though that is, but because many of those women will have the kinds of attitudes and attributes that the new flat flexible organizations need. If they screen out the women they will handicap their future. Charles Handy

The entry of women into an all-male dominated profession may be one ofthe major transformations of the century. This recent and optimistic trendmust not hide the serious fact that in most countries there is only a smallpercentage of women in management and related decision making positions.This is made clear from the United Nations official statistics and dataon women indicating that while conditions for women have improved in variousareas, particularly education, health and employment, women in general,and Arab women in particular, continue to face many challenges. This predicament,considered to be a violation of women's rights, has always been a main concernof the U.N. It was in September 1995, that the Fourth International Women'sconference sponsored by the U.N. was held in Beijing. This undoubtedly reflectsUnited Nation's relentless efforts in overcoming obstacles to women's rightsand equality.

Women in Management

The obstacles to women in management are still formidable and, some wouldargue, growing more intractable. Significantly outnumbered by male colleagues,they are members of a minority group who have risen to positions of influencewithin systems which are best described as patriarchal (USIS, 1996; Dines,1993; Vinnicombe, 1995; Adachi, 1989; Marshall, 1984).

Must society be constructed in such a way that intelligent, competentwomen are denied access to management careers, which are considered in manycountries to occupy the highest levels in the social and professional hierarchy?Must society be ordered in such a way as to generate extreme discriminationbetween men and women in certain employment sectors, and thereby to depriveitself of human resources sorely needed to solve its problems?

Women in management at the turn of the century is an issue that demandsserious attention and a new urgency. In the West, particularly Western Europeand North America, although women constitute almost forty five percent ofthe workforce, they occupy only 10% of the management positions (World Almanac,1997; USIS,1996). This figure is much lower in the senior management positions(World Almanac, 1997; Vinnicombe & Colwill, 1995). In the past, thedirectives for women in the workforce were centered on Civil Rights Act,Equal Opportunity and Affirmative Action (Dessler, 1994; Sherman & Bohlander,1992; Marshall, 1984). Whereas such mandates have put pressure on businessand government to employ more women in the workforce, especially in theservice industry, not much has been done to break the glass ceiling foraccess of women to management positions (USIS, 1996; Korabik & Rosin,1995; Vinnicombe, 1995; Hennig & Jardim, 1977).

Greenglass & Marshall (1997) in their special issue of Applied Psychologyon women in management provide valuable insight into why and how women continueto be repressed and silenced in male dominated organizations, despite theirpossession of requisite qualifications for management positions. This specialissue concludes that, globally, women continue to face major hurdles intheir career progression to potential ranks of senior management, arenasof power and major decision making.

The above mentioned trends and practices ought no longer prevail in thecurrent business world. Today clear business cases can be cited for increasingwomen's participation in management. As centralized leadership gives wayto flattened hierarchy and employee empowerment, managers will be expectedto have good communication and interpersonal skills, the ability to listenand relate to others, and be capable of working in self-managing teams (Cascio,1992; De Cenzo & Robins, 1996; Hunsaker & Hunsaker, 1991). All thesequalities tend to favor women managers.

Management experts on both sides of the Atlantic have realized that themanagement style of women fulfills the demands of new organizations betterthan their male counterparts. This is supported by an international surveyconducted by the Sydney-based consultancy firm DDI Asia Pacific, which specializesin executive testing and selection. The consultancy surveyed 1,332 employeesand managers working in companies based in Australia, the United States,Canada and New Zealand. Results from the survey indicated that women makebetter managers than men due to their feminine qualities and attributesthat are better suited for the modern decentralized organizational structureswith flattened hierarchies and empowered work teams (Oman Daily Observer,1997).

These documented observations are appropriately summarized by managementguru, Charles Handy:

For these jobs the organization wants quality people, well educated, well skilled and adaptable. They also want people who can juggle several tasks and assignments at one time, who are more interested in making things happen than in what title or office they hold, more concerned with power and influence than status. They want people who value instinct and intuition as well as analysis and rationality, who can be tough but also tender, focused but friendly, people who can cope with these necessary contradictions. They want, therefore, as many women as they can get. (1994, p.14)

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

This case study addresses the role of Omani women in management positionsin the Sultanate of Oman. This is highlighted by determining the factorsthat encourage women to pursue careers in management, the obstacles hinderingwomen's progress and the actions needed to be taken to help Omani womenachieve greater strides.

RATIONALE OF THE STUDY

Concern about the role of Omani women in national development is an issuethat demands serious consideration. Omani women represent almost fifty percentof the Omani population, furthermore, an increasing number of educated womenare seeking employment in the labor market.

Soliciting feedback from Oman's most valuable human resources, in thislight, Omani female managers will supply the government and the privatesector sound information for policy development and implementation regardingthe profile and status of Omani women in the workforce.

The findings of this study could have policy implications for variousinstitutions in the government such as: the General Directorate for Women'sand Children's Affairs at the Ministry of Social Affairs and Labor, OmaniWomen's Society, Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Civil Service.

METHODOLOGY

To generate the needed information for this study, the researcher employedthe following methods and procedures:

1. Carried a literature review pertinent to the study.

2. Designed a questionnaire.

3. Pilot studied the questionnaire on a sample of Omani female managersto determine whether the questionnaire elicits the needed information.

4. Distributed the questionnaire to a sample of Omani female managers.

5. Collected and analyzed the questionnaire responses to determine thedriving and resisting forces to Omani women in management positions.

6. Interpreted the results and proposed possible practices and patternsfor promoting Omani women in management in the Sultanate of Oman.

INSTRUMENTATION

For the purpose of this study, a questionnaire composed of a sectionwith questions on biographical, academic and professional data followedby a section with three open ended questions has been designed. A coverletter explaining the purpose of the study along with a section ensuringconfidentiality and anonymity was attached to each questionnaire. The respondentswere asked to complete the questionnaire and to respond to the three openended questions regarding the driving and resisting forces to Omani womenin management and to suggest on what can be done to promote women in managementin the Sultanate of Oman. (Questionnaire)

SUBJECTS

Subjects of this study constituted a sample of Omani female managersworking in the public (government) and private sectors. These subjects representsenior level of Omani women in the work force and occupy positions of directors,director generals, advisors to ministers, head of departments, assistantdeans and deans.

DATA ANALYSIS PROCEDURES

The researcher utilized descriptive and qualitative statistical methodsto describe, analyze and summarize the characteristics of the data collected.Descriptive analysis was used to show the composition of the populationin terms of age, marital status, number of children, academic qualification,place of post-secondary education, and total years of work experience. Qualitativeanalysis was used to summarize and present respondents' feedback on theopen ended questions regarding resisting and supporting factors to Omaniwomen in management in the Sultanate of Oman. Finally results from the dataanalysis and literature review was used to make recommendations on improvingthe status of women in management in the Sultanate of Oman.

A Perspective on Oman's Socio-economic and Educational Development

Hamoud (1993) writes, "the role of women in management cannot betreated in isolation from the general status of women in society, and fromthe general aims of economic, social and educational development "(p. 31). Education is the key to women's equality. This is particularly significantgiven that one out of three women is uneducated (UN, 1996). Therefore, priorto considering the role of Omani women in management, let us consider thefundamental question of opportunities for Omani women in the formal education.Access to education is one of the primary indicators of women's status ina given society, and therefore, is the root of women's emancipation. Inthis regard, the Sultanate of Oman is no exception.

Until 1970, Oman was a country that lagged behind socially and economically.The country lacked all sorts of public amenities and infrastructure suchas modern schools, hospitals, tarmac roads, electricity and water. Twenty-eightyears later, Oman has developed into a modern nation with both the infrastructureand the social organizations required to meet the needs of its people. Theavailability of oil revenues have made such a significant and rapid transformationpossible. The vision and leadership for such a change was directed by oneperson - His Majesty Sultan Qaboos bin Said Al-Said, ruler of the Sultanateof Oman since his accession in 1970. His Majesty has overseen the transformationof the Sultanate of Oman from a single economy, based upon rudimentary agricultureand fishing, to a modern and dynamic nation with a diversified economy.

A noteworthy catalyst for the above successful transformation is thedevelopment of education from primary to tertiary levels. Prior to 1970,education in Oman was confined to 3 primary schools with 900 boys, therewas no provision for the education of girls. Following the accession ofHis Majesty Sultan Qaboos in 1970, education has been made available toall Omani nationals (boys and girls on an equal ratio) under a program ofcontinuous and rapid expansion, the most recent stage of which was the openingof the co-educational Sultan Qaboos University in 1986. The availabilityof education (from primary to tertiary) for women has undoubtedly playeda crucial role towards the emancipation of Omani women. This achievementhas attracted the praise of a number of international magazines on women'sissues, one of which is the Indonesian Women's magazine (Observer, 1996).

Women in Management in the Sultanate of Oman

The implementation of socio-economic and educational plans during therenaissance period (1970-1998) has transformed the Omani society and economy.Undoubtedly, the development of human resources has been accorded particularimportance in this transformation with the inclusion of women on an equalbasis. This however, has not resulted in equal participation of women inthe workforce, despite an equal percentage of women in Oman's population.The results of the official population census taken in 1993 showed the Omanipopulation at 1,480,531. The statistics revealed that there were 755,071male Omanies and 725,460 female Omanies, giving almost a 50:50 ratio ofmen to women (Omani Census, 1993). The age distribution of the Omani populationis consistent with that of developing nations with almost 54% of the totalOmani population under the age of 15. The Profile of Labor force statisticsduring this period comprised of 274,411 Omani nationals of which only 24,007(9%) are Omani women (Table 1).

It can be observed from Table 1 that the Omani labor force structureis heavily male oriented. This however, should not mislead the reader intointerpreting the gender inequity in the labor force for reasons of lackof education and or job opportunities for women. Analysis of the Omani laborcomposition attributes this gender discrepancy to several economic and socialfactors. Some of the fundamental factors include traditional culture andattitudes coupled with values and stereotypes of the Omani woman as a wifeand mother as their primary role in the Omani society. Other factors relateto the type and nature of occupations which the labor market provides, theunsuitability of some of these occupations because of social customs andtraditions, or the short supply of some jobs which women normally prefer.This situation is expected to change with projections of the increased roleof women in the labor market caused by the steady increase in the educationof girls and the expectation that thousands of girls will complete variousstages of education in the coming years (Oman Statistical Year Book, 1996).

The profile of Omani women labor composition and employment structureis shown in Tables 2 and 3. This profile was prepared and presented by theGeneral Directorate for Women's and Children's Affairs, Ministry of SocialAffairs and Labor at the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, China.The statistics indicated that there were 17,946 women working in the governmentsector; 2,942 in the private sector and 3,119 who owned their own business.The profile of the government female employees indicates a heavy orientationtowards the service sector with the majority (59%) concentrated in the Ministryof Education followed by (22%) in the Ministry of Health and remaining (19%)distributed among other government sectors (Table2).

With regards to senior executive and decision making positions in thegovernment sector, the Sultanate of Oman under the wise leadership and directivesof His Majesty Sultan Qaboos bin Said, has set precedence in the Arab Gulfregion by appointing Omani women in senior government positions. This undertakingwas epitomized by the recent appointment of four women in the 40 seat StateCouncil (State Council, 1997) (Table 3).

Table 3 shows the distribution of Omani women in the government sector'stop management and decision making positions. This includes 3 Deputy Ministers,4 members in the State Council (Majlis Aldawlah), 2 members in the ConsultativeCouncil (Majlis Alshu'ra), 4 in Senior Advisory positions, 13 in specialgrade, and 261 in Grade One (equivalent to Director & Director General).

Tables 2 and 3 concludes that Omani women are represented in all employmentsectors, be it government, private or their own business. Furthermore, unlikeits neighboring Arab Gulf countries, the Sultanate of Oman has catapultedwomen to unprecedented heights by appointing them to senior political positionsin Oman's Council and ministries. This reflects His Majesty's trust andconfidence in women's ability to manage and execute senior government positions.Consequently, the representation of Omani women (13%) in the ranks of seniorgovernment positions surpasses Western standards.

To begin with, it would be helpful to address a list of generic forcesas terms of reference in discussing the role of Omani women in managementpositions in the Sultanate of Oman. Such forces have been referred to quitefrequently by a number of writers on women's issues, for example (Dines,1993; Hammoud, 1994; Vinnicombe & Colwill, 1995).

The Driving Forces for Change in the Sultanate of Oman

There are ten major driving forces acting for change in the Sultanateof Oman: religion (Islam), national leadership, education, nationalization(Omanization), economy, General Directorate for Women's and Children's Affairs(Omani Women's Associations), women's leadership, favorable labor laws,family support and child care services, and changing women's attitudes.Each of these driving forces will be discussed and analyzed for its impact.Subsequently, strategies will be recommended to sustain and possibly strengthenthe impact.

Islam

Islam accords equal rights to men and women alike. In fact, Islam isthe key to women's emancipation and liberation. Islam does not forbid womenfrom seeking an education or from pursuing work. On the contrary, Islamencourages women to be educated, work, own property and engage in business. It has elevated the value and worth of a woman to an unprecedented statusin society. A role model to Muslim women is (Sitina) Khadija, the wife ofProphet Mohammed (PBUH), who successfully fulfilled the roles of a businesswoman, a wife and a mother.

The Muslim nations have elected three women Prime Ministers, namely BenazirBhutto of Pakistan, Khaleda Zia (presently Shaikha Hasina) of Bangladeshand Tansu Cillar of Turkey. These individuals were elected by male and femalevoters on their abilities as capable human beings, not as women. These electionshave demonstrated the true essence of Islam towards the role of women. Ithas refuted the distorted myth construed by social taboo that a woman'splace is in the house, and that it is socially unacceptable and dishonorablefor a Muslim woman to work. In her address to the Fourth World Conferenceon Women, Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto pleaded that "Muslim womenhave a special responsibility to help distinguish between Islamic teachingsand social taboos spun by the traditions of a patriarchal society"(p.1).

Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) encouraged Muslims, men and women alike, to seekand pursue knowledge. The Holy Koranic verses and Hadiths can be cited todemonstrate this fundamental right to knowledge. "Say: My Lord, increasemy knowledge" (Holy Koran xx: 1,14). "God will exalt to high ranksthose who believe among you, and those who have knowledge" (Holy Koranlv11: 11). "Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave" (Hadith)."The search for knowledge is a duty of every Muslim, male and female"(Hadith).

National Leadership

Since the dawn of the national renaissance in 1970, His Majesty SultanQaboos has repeatedly stated that Oman's crucial resource is its nationalhuman resources. This appeal does not preclude Omani women as proclaimedby His Majesty in His speech: "The education of girls is never absentfrom our mind, since women form half of our society." In recognitionof this fact, a full fledged commitment by the government of Oman has beenundertaken to educate, train and develop its national work force as a measuretowards nation building and economic development.

His majesty's drive towards development of national human resources isnot restricted to men, but applies equally to women. This is attested byequal educational and job opportunities. Omani women occupy different professionssuch as, medical doctors, lawyers, engineers, business leaders, and teachers.Omani women are found in the army and police, private and public sectors,and most importantly, in senior government positions.

To support the role of women, the Omani government has set a number ofprograms such as a network of modern health services and social servicesthroughout the country aimed at improving the advancement of women. Undoubtedly,Omani women have been liberated and accorded their respect as equal partnersin Omani society under the leadership of His Majesty, Sultan Qaboos.

Nationalization (Omanization)

The government of Oman is committed to nationalization (Omanization),a program that has been initiated by His Majesty to prepare Omani nationalsto take an active role in the workforce and to replace expatriates whereverpossible. With a labor force of 690,000 comprising 55% expatriates and 45%Omani nationals, the Sultanate is highly dependent on expatriates. Thispredicament has always been a concern of the government, and rigorous trainingand development programs have been enacted to promote nationalization inthe country.

The importance of developing the country's national human resources hasbeen one of the main aims and policies throughout the Sultanate's five yeardevelopment plans (Birks & Sinclair, 1980; Development Council, 1995).This aim is supported by several constructive policies and measures clearlydocumented in the development plan. For instance, the Fourth Five Year Developmentplan (1991-1995) has committed an initial allocation of Omani Rials 40 millionfor the implementation of the Omanization policies, in addition to appropriatingthe sum of Omani Rials 10 million to the Ministry of Civil Service towardsOmanization programs in the civil service domain (Development Council, 1993).

To this effect, legislation concerning employment contained in the OmaniLabor Law states that preference should be given to Omani nationals. Thismandate is enforced by the Government's Ministry of Social Affairs and Laborby specifying the ratio of Omanization to be achieved by the end of 1996in the private sector taking into account the number of Omani graduatesgraduating annually from the various educational institutes (Table4).

Education

Education in Oman is a fundamental right for each and every Omani citizen.The importance of educating and developing the country's national humanresources has been one of the main aims and policies of His Majesty's government.In accordance with His Majesty's directives, a network of modern primaryand secondary education establishments for girls and boys has been extendedacross the whole country, catering to even remote villages. Educationalprogress has been phenomenal. By the 1994-95 academic year, there were atotal of 947 schools at the three levels of general education (primary,preparatory, and secondary) with 474, 288 students, half of which are girls.At the post-secondary level there are equal facilities for both males andfemales to pursue higher education and vocational training. This is providedboth domestically and internationally. Higher education facilities in Omaninclude one co-educational university, Sultan Qaboos University of whichmore than 50% of the student body are female, twelve intermediate teacherstraining colleges, two specialized institutes of health and banking, sixtechnical colleges and six vocational institutes (Sultanate of Oman StatisticalYear Book, 1995). Higher education in Oman caters equally to men and womenwithout discrimination. This educational development is indeed staggeringand deserves a noteworthy recognition, given that prior to 1970 there wereonly three elementary schools for boys and no facilities for girls.

General Directorate for Women's and Children's Affairs

The development, advancement and participation of Omani women as equalpartners in the country's socio-economic development has been supportedby many factors, one of which is the General Directorate for Women's andChildren's Affairs, formally established in 1985. Undoubtedly, a significantmove has been made by the government to enhance the status and role of womenin Oman's society. The Directorate, under the auspices of the Ministry ofSocial Affairs & Labor, has setup a network of Women's Development Centersthroughout the country, catering to rural and remote villages as well.

The general aims and mission of the Directorate is to set up programsfor the care of mothers and children, the eradication of illiteracy, education,the development of traditional and modern handicraft skills, the promotionof healthy and hygienic environment, the teaching of survival skills, andthe cultivation of women's minds and roles as citizens of a modern developingsociety.

Of significant importance and a positive precedent prior to the inceptionof the Directorate, is the voluntary social work of the Omani Women's Association,the first of its kind in the country founded in 1971. Managed as a not forprofit organization, the Omani Women's Association acts in collaborationwith the efforts and support of the government to carry out a great numberof activities aimed at improving and enhancing the role of Omani women insociety. Some of these activities include literacy classes, various handicraft skills, family care programs (day care centers, care for handicappedchildren, summer activities for girls, health awareness), social functions,organizing exhibitions to display the various work prepared by members ofthe association, intellectual and educational development through nationaland international women's conferences and meetings, and setting up workshopsto promote social and professional development. It is envisaged that theWomen's Association could be instrumental in providing a network for Omaniwomen in management, and to offer the much needed support for their developmentin the workplace.

Women's Leadership

Pursuant to the directives of His Majesty Sultan Qaboos Bin Said, nineOmani women have been appointed to senior government decision making positions.This includes: four women in the forty seat State Council (Majlis Aldawlah),two women in the eighty seat Consultative Council (Majlis Al'Shura) andthree women for the positions of Deputy Minister. In addition, Omani womenoccupy positions of Senior Advisors, Director Generals, and Directors inthe various government organizations. It is noteworthy to mention that Omaniwomen are represented in the Faculty Profile (Academic Staff) of SultanQaboos University as well as representation of Medical Staff (Medical Doctors)in hospitals all over the country.

The Consultative Council was set up in November 1991 under the directiveof His Majesty Sultan Qaboos bin Said. It holds the position of a parliamentand is based on Islamic religious law and procedures. Since its inception,it has assumed a practical role in assisting the government in all importantmatters relating to social and economic issues. Although under-represented,with only two women among the eighty elected members, this is considereda major development for women and a great opportunity for Omani women tobe a part of the decision making body representing the people of Oman.

In December 1997, His Majesty Sultan Qaboos Bin Said inaugurated theCouncil of Oman comprising the newly formed State Council along with thepre-established Consultative Council. The forty seat State Council withfour women representatives is yet another progressive step in the consultative(Shura) process, that works in conjunction with the Majlis Alshura for achievingthe nation's social and economic goals (Majlis Aldawlah, 1997).

National Economy

Since the accession of Sultan Qaboos to power in 1970, His Majesty haspursued a vigorous policy for economic and social development which hasbeen facilitated by revenues generated from oil export (Sultanate of Oman,1975). Oman's economy has been transformed from one that was based mainlyon subsistence agriculture and fisheries to one that is oil based with allthe modern facilities and infrastructure. Subsequently, the Omani societyemerged from one that was lagging behind socially, culturally and economically;to one that is educated, enlightened ,and endowed with modern social facilities.The availability of oil revenues has made it possible for Oman to developits economy, educate its people and offer a relatively comfortable standardof living. This however, has not rendered a total reliance and dependenceon oil revenues, rather the government of Oman has been pursuing economicdiversification and privatization programs as a measure of maintaining aviable and sustainable economy for its people.

Favorable Labor Laws

Omani women are accorded favorable labor laws which serve to protecttheir rights and ensure equality in the workplace. Employment in Oman doesnot discriminate on gender and exercises a sound policy of equal employmentopportunity and equal pay act. An entire section in the Oman Labor Law isdedicated to the employment of women. For example, Articles 80 to 82 inthe Oman Labor Law clearly safe guard the rights and working conditionsof Omani women (Oman Labor Law). These articles spell out special advantagesand support granted to working women in areas such as maternity and widowhoodleave entitlements (each is six weeks leave), and a special provision thatallows working women to request leave of absence (up to four years) withoutpay to accompany a spouse who is posted abroad. Working mothers who returnto work while continuing to breast feed are allowed to leave work an hourearly each day for six months to feed their babies.

The working hours in the government (public) sector are conducive toworking women. Government employees work from 7:30 a.m. - 2:30 p.m. Saturdaythrough Wednesday, and Thursday and Friday are days off from work. Suchworking hours allow parents, particularly working mothers, to spend timewith their children.

Family Support and Child-care Services

Omani women enjoy a wide range of child-care support services. Theserange from family support to professional services such as affordable housemaid/nannyand child-care centers (nurseries). The Omani society is based on strongfamily ties. The centrality of the family accompanied by close relationshipsmakes it possible for parents or parents-in-law of working women to helpwith child care.

Working women can also avail themselves with a host of day-care centersand nurseries. These facilities are available through out the country witha higher concentration in the capital area to cater to the larger populationof working women.

Changing Women's Attitudes

The aforementioned factors have contributed immensely in influencingwomen's attitudes towards their role in a modern developing Arab society.In an interview with ten top women managers in Bahrain and Dubai about theirwork and its challenges, Wilkinson (1996) affirms that "women who havesucceeded in business anywhere are controversial figures, and the Arab Gulfis no exception to this rule (p. 22). These women who have successfullymade it to top management positions either as entrepreneurs and owners oftheir business or managers of major companies have stated that the drivingforce behind their success includes: family support, educational opportunity,academic success, job opportunity, determination, inner drive for success,qualities and attributes conducive to successful management, ability tohandle multiple tasks, and self- confidence. The challenges faced by thesewomen were overt discrimination at work, cultural taboos, negative attitudetoward working women, and lack of confidence and trust in women managers.

In Oman, the availability and accessibility to all levels of educationalong with equal opportunities in the job market has not only emancipatedthe Omani woman but equally accorded her individual rights and respect asan equal partner in the Omani society. This is substantiated by informalinterviews with some of the professional Omani women working in governmentand private sectors. These women who have successfully progressed to managementpositions attribute their achievements to accessibility to equal educationaland job opportunities coupled with their perseverance in committing themselvesto their jobs and career progression. In this regard, one of the respondentssaid, "Making it to the top is not easy. It takes a lot of hard work,patience, commitment, sacrifice and trade-off; however, the opportunityis there for those women who aspire to become managers and are willing andable to maintain multiple roles."

The Resisting Forces for Change in the Sultanate of Oman

This case study does not imply a presence of a "utopia" forwomen in the Omani society. Arab nations in particular, provide differentforms of deterrents which prevent women's progress and development. Someof these deterrents include a generic stereotype of Arab women reflectedby Muslim societies, particularly men, with regard to a woman's role asmother. Negative male attitudes also prevail professional working women.There is an unspoken "silent" policy of discrimination againstwomen at work, the presence of a "Glass Ceiling" preventing women'saccessibility to top management positions, absence of a professional women'snetwork, lack of professional management training programs for women, andlack of affirmative action for promoting and ensuring women's presentationin the labor force as well as in management positions.

Traditional Attitudes and Stereotypes

Although gradually changing among the more educated modern Arab/Islamicsocieties, conservative Arab societies hold traditional socio-cultural stereotypesand attitudes about the role of women. These conservative and traditionalattitudes highlighted in the literature of women in the Muslim world byMagharabi, Al-Dabbagh & Hayajneh, (1994); Bech (1994); and Al-Hatimy(1983) portray women's primary role as a wife and mother. Women are notnecessarily looked upon as having the abilities and potential for developingprofessional careers. They are portrayed as being inferior to men, naturallyemotional and unsuitable for leadership positions (Hammoud,1993). Such conservativeattitudes negate the concept of professional working women in traditionalArab societies, the idea of women working is degrading and a disgrace tosome Arab men who consider that it is their responsibility to provide fortheir wives and family. Therefore, traditional Arab/Islamic societies maintainthat first and foremost, women should prepare themselves for a domesticcareer of being a wife and mother. Work should only be considered as a lastoption under extraneous conditions and circumstances.

The above attitude tends to have a spillover effect at work, wherebymale employers regard women as being less capable then men and unfit forresponsible positions, claiming that their family obligations take priority;and hence, subjects them to lower productivity and absenteeism (Beck, 1994;Hammoud, 1993). This negative attitude and traditional stereotype towardswomen in Arab/Islamic societies has been, and still is, a major resistingforce to progress for professional working women, particularly for thosein management.

Portrayed Self-image of Women

The inferior self-image of women becomes difficult to overcome consideringthat it is ingrained and conditioned in their upbringing and social development(Hunsaker & Hunsaker, 1991; Hennig & Jardim, 1977). In traditionalArab-Islamic patriarchal societies, the feminine gender is subordinate,while the masculine is superior and dominant (Magharabi et.al., 1994; Bech,1994; Hammoud, 1993; Allaghi & Almana, 1984; Gerner, 1984; Al-Hatimy1983). Generally, men are held responsible for providing the necessitiesof life, thus to work outside the home. On the other hand, women are expectedto serve their husbands and children at home, especially since women arenot required by the Islamic law (Shari'a) to financially support the family.In this subordinate position, women become victims of their own gender (Mernissi,1985, Rassam, 1984). Hammoud's (1993) dynamic study on the role of womenin higher education management in the Arab region confers that the mostfatal obstacle which prevents women from realizing their utmost professionalachievement is the self-image of a woman portrayed as inferior to men, incapableof being socially and financially independent, and hence depends on theman to care for and protect them.

Studies in the Gulf countries by Allaghi & Almana (1984) and Osseiran(1989) reflect women's inferior self-image. Results indicate 50% of thefemale students surveyed believe that the husband should have the "finalword", that women should obey their husbands, and that a husband'seducation should be higher than that of his wife. With regard to work, itwas felt that women should only work in the traditional professions suchas teaching and nursing. There was a strong preference towards jobs thatdo not require women to mix with men. The Khattab and El-Daif (1984) studyin Cairo revealed that 66% of female students stated that women with childrenshould stop work; 41% maintained that teaching and social work are the mostappropriate jobs for women; and the majority believed that women shouldonly work as an economic necessity.

Human Resource Policies and Strategies

The lack of proper human resource policies and strategies addressingwomen workers has proven to be a major obstacle to women's progress anddevelopment. For instance, in the USA, women's rights have not merely evolvedfrom vacuum; rather, advocates of women's rights in America applied theCivil Rights law to fight sex discrimination at work and to demand equalrights. This struggle resulted in what is known as 'Affirmative Action'at the workplace (Vinnicombe, 1995; Hannig & Jardim, 1977).

Only nine percent (9% ) of the Omani workforce are women. The majorityof these workers are concentrated in the lower echelons of the organizationalhierarchy with a small percentage in decision making positions. In Oman,the absence of human resource policies and strategies to promote the recruitmentand development of female managers at work is a deterrent to gender diversity.The work environment and culture are not conducive to promoting women inmanagement. This acts as a 'glass ceiling" preventing women's accessibilityto top management positions. For example, there are no programs to facilitatethe advancement of women as role models, absence of mentoring programs,lack of management training programs, and shunning of affirmative action.

Lack of Professional a Women's Network

The lack of a professional women's network in Oman creates a major voidfor women aspiring to professional managerial positions. The absence ofa female mentor-protégé relationship makes it difficult forwomen to develop the requisite attitude, skills and abilities for leadershipand management positions. This results in a disparate situation and a stateof confusion; because after all, women are entering a male dominated domaincoupled with a traditional value system and a culture that tends to shunwomen from pursuing management careers.

Presentation and Analysis of the Data

Sixty questionnaires were dispatched to a random sample of Omani Womenin management positions in the Sultanate of Oman. The response rate wasextremely slow and tedious. Except for a few, the majority of the respondentswere not cooperative. Many repeated telephone calls along with remindersto solicit their feedback were necessary. This is quite understandable inthis part of the world whereby information and research are a foreign phenomenonand not the norm. People are not necessarily comfortable with the idea ofexpressing their opinion honestly and freely. An element of inhibition exists.Therefore, of the 60 questionnaires distributed, 32 questionnaires werereturned for a response rate of 53%.

Personal Characteristics of the Respondents

A summary of the personal and professional characteristics of the respondentsis displayed in Tables 5 through 11. The distribution of respondents byage is shown in Table 5. Of the 32 respondents surveyed in this study, thehighest distribution of 15 (47%) were in the age bracket (35 - 44) followedby 11 (34%) in the (25 - 34) age bracket and 6 (19%) in the (45 - 54) agebracket (Table 5).

The distribution of respondents by marital status is shown in Table 6.The majority of the respondents 27 (84%) were married leaving 5 (16%) single(Table 6).

Table 7 depicts the distribution of respondents by number of children.The highest concentration was 18 (56%) having (1 - 3) children, followedby 8 (25%) with (4 - 6) children and 6 (19%) with no children (Table 7).

The distribution of respondents by academic qualification is shown inTable 8. Eighteen (56%) of the respondents received Bachelors degrees, followedby 9 (28%) with Masters and 5 (16%) with Doctorates (Table8).

Table 9 summarizes the distribution of respondents by place of post-secondaryeducation. Fifteen (47%) of the respondents received their post-secondaryeducation in the Arab World (East) and 17 (53%) in Western universities(West) (Table 9).

The distribution of respondents by place of employment is shown in Table10. The majority of 24 (75%) of the respondents worked for the government(public sector) and 8 (25%) worked for the private sector (Table10).

Table 11summarizes the personal opinion of the respondents on whetheror not resisting forces outweigh driving forces to Omani women in management.Fifteen (47%) of the respondents felt that resisting forces outweighed drivingforces to Omani women in management, while 17 (53%) felt that there wereno such imbalances (Table 11).

Analysis of Respondent's Personal Opinion on Omani Women in Management

As indicated in Table 11, fifteen (47%) of the respondents felt thatresisting forces outweighed driving forces to Omani Women in managementpositions. It appears that these women chose to be critical and sorted outthis opportunity to voice their issues of concern on women in managementin the Sultanate of Oman. In their comments, these women acknowledge andrealize that the government of Oman has made available to Omani women anarray of social and economic factors (driving forces) to improve their statusin the Omani society, but it was felt that women still remain victims ofdiscrimination (resisting forces) by the prevalent male dominated culture.For example, some of the respondents stated that "merely being a womanis a major obstacle towards professional development." Other commentsinclude:

- "higher management is dominated by males who tend not to takewomen seriously professionally."

- "not having the social back-up nor the network needed to encourageand promote women in management positions."

- "feeling of inferiority complex towards men in the managementcadre."

- "traditional values and culture discourage women from pursuingprofessional and management positions."

- "conflicting roles of being a domesticated wife and mother, andthat of professional woman."

In general, women in this category indicated that the resisting forcesto women in management include: limited opportunities to higher education,discriminatory appointment and promotion practices, traditional attitudesof male bosses towards working women, male dominated domain, male resistanceto women in management, absence of policies and legislation to ensure participationof women in management positions, lack of professional networking, lackof female role models, lack of professional management development programs,lack of sufficient number of quality day-care centers, dual responsibilitiesof traditional and professional roles, balancing traditional and professionalroles, and family obligations as a wife and a mother for child-bearing andchild-rearing.

Coincidentally, considerable similarity existed between the respondentsopinion and the generic resisting forces for change in the Sultanate ofOman. The most common issues of concern are related to cultural attitudes,traditional values and stereotypes of the status and role of women in Arab-Islamicsocieties. The respondents felt that the social and cultural perceptionof Omani women's role was that of a domesticated wife and mother with primaryresponsibility towards families.

On the other hand, the remaining seventeen (53%) of the respondents whohave ruled out that resisting forces outweigh supportive forces to Omaniwomen in management positions supported their views with the following factors.Women in this category felt that although resisting forces existed whichare primarily male dominated traditional social and culture attitudes andstereotypes of Omani women, such forces were balanced out and in some casesoutweighed by supportive forces. These women have concentrated on the positivefactors attested by the following comments:

- "Omani women get best education as men so that they can work alongside men and their place is not limited to their homes."

- "Omani women have proven their abilities to succeed academicallyand professionally."

- "Omani women are more devoted to their duties and carry out theirresponsibilities diligently and conscientiously."

- "the government has set up the Directorate General of women andchild affairs which has made steady progress in uplifting women socially,economically and educationally."

In general, women in this category indicated that the driving forcesbehind their success include: first and foremost family support from theirparents and spouse, determination and inner drive for success, opportunitiesfor access to all levels of education and academic achievement, self confidence,diligence and perseverance, job opportunities and potential for professionalgrowth and development.

The entry of women into an all-male dominated profession may be one ofthe major transformations of the century. This recent and optimistic trendmust not hide the serious fact that in most countries there is only a smallpercentage of women in management and related decision making positions.This is made clear from the United Nations official statistics and dataon women indicating that while conditions for women have improved in variousareas, particularly education, health and employment, women in general,and Arab women in particular, continue to face many challenges. This predicament,considered to be a violation of women's rights, has always been a main concernof the U.N. It was in September 1995, that the Fourth International Women'sconference sponsored by the U.N. was held in Beijing. This undoubtedly reflectsUnited Nation's relentless efforts in overcoming obstacles to women's rightsand equality.

Women in Management

The obstacles to women in management are still formidable and, some wouldargue, growing more intractable. Significantly outnumbered by male colleagues,they are members of a minority group who have risen to positions of influencewithin systems which are best described as patriarchal (USIS, 1996; Dines,1993; Vinnicombe, 1995; Adachi, 1989; Marshall, 1984).

Must society be constructed in such a way that intelligent, competentwomen are denied access to management careers, which are considered in manycountries to occupy the highest levels in the social and professional hierarchy?Must society be ordered in such a way as to generate extreme discriminationbetween men and women in certain employment sectors, and thereby to depriveitself of human resources sorely needed to solve its problems?

Women in management at the turn of the century is an issue that demandsserious attention and a new urgency. In the West, particularly Western Europeand North America, although women constitute almost forty five percent ofthe workforce, they occupy only 10% of the management positions (World Almanac,1997; USIS,1996). This figure is much lower in the senior management positions(World Almanac, 1997; Vinnicombe & Colwill, 1995). In the past, thedirectives for women in the workforce were centered on Civil Rights Act,Equal Opportunity and Affirmative Action (Dessler, 1994; Sherman & Bohlander,1992; Marshall, 1984). Whereas such mandates have put pressure on businessand government to employ more women in the workforce, especially in theservice industry, not much has been done to break the glass ceiling foraccess of women to management positions (USIS, 1996; Korabik & Rosin,1995; Vinnicombe, 1995; Hennig & Jardim, 1977).

Greenglass & Marshall (1997) in their special issue of Applied Psychologyon women in management provide valuable insight into why and how women continueto be repressed and silenced in male dominated organizations, despite theirpossession of requisite qualifications for management positions. This specialissue concludes that, globally, women continue to face major hurdles intheir career progression to potential ranks of senior management, arenasof power and major decision making.

The above mentioned trends and practices ought no longer prevail in thecurrent business world. Today clear business cases can be cited for increasingwomen's participation in management. As centralized leadership gives wayto flattened hierarchy and employee empowerment, managers will be expectedto have good communication and interpersonal skills, the ability to listenand relate to others, and be capable of working in self-managing teams (Cascio,1992; De Cenzo & Robins, 1996; Hunsaker & Hunsaker, 1991). All thesequalities tend to favor women managers.

Management experts on both sides of the Atlantic have realized that themanagement style of women fulfills the demands of new organizations betterthan their male counterparts. This is supported by an international surveyconducted by the Sydney-based consultancy firm DDI Asia Pacific, which specializesin executive testing and selection. The consultancy surveyed 1,332 employeesand managers working in companies based in Australia, the United States,Canada and New Zealand. Results from the survey indicated that women makebetter managers than men due to their feminine qualities and attributesthat are better suited for the modern decentralized organizational structureswith flattened hierarchies and empowered work teams (Oman Daily Observer,1997).

These documented observations are appropriately summarized by managementguru, Charles Handy:

For these jobs the organization wants quality people, well educated, well skilled and adaptable. They also want people who can juggle several tasks and assignments at one time, who are more interested in making things happen than in what title or office they hold, more concerned with power and influence than status. They want people who value instinct and intuition as well as analysis and rationality, who can be tough but also tender, focused but friendly, people who can cope with these necessary contradictions. They want, therefore, as many women as they can get. (1994, p.14)

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

This case study addresses the role of Omani women in management positionsin the Sultanate of Oman. This is highlighted by determining the factorsthat encourage women to pursue careers in management, the obstacles hinderingwomen's progress and the actions needed to be taken to help Omani womenachieve greater strides.

RATIONALE OF THE STUDY

Concern about the role of Omani women in national development is an issuethat demands serious consideration. Omani women represent almost fifty percentof the Omani population, furthermore, an increasing number of educated womenare seeking employment in the labor market.

Soliciting feedback from Oman's most valuable human resources, in thislight, Omani female managers will supply the government and the privatesector sound information for policy development and implementation regardingthe profile and status of Omani women in the workforce.

The findings of this study could have policy implications for variousinstitutions in the government such as: the General Directorate for Women'sand Children's Affairs at the Ministry of Social Affairs and Labor, OmaniWomen's Society, Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Civil Service.

METHODOLOGY

To generate the needed information for this study, the researcher employedthe following methods and procedures:

1. Carried a literature review pertinent to the study.

2. Designed a questionnaire.

3. Pilot studied the questionnaire on a sample of Omani female managersto determine whether the questionnaire elicits the needed information.

4. Distributed the questionnaire to a sample of Omani female managers.

5. Collected and analyzed the questionnaire responses to determine thedriving and resisting forces to Omani women in management positions.

6. Interpreted the results and proposed possible practices and patternsfor promoting Omani women in management in the Sultanate of Oman.

INSTRUMENTATION

For the purpose of this study, a questionnaire composed of a sectionwith questions on biographical, academic and professional data followedby a section with three open ended questions has been designed. A coverletter explaining the purpose of the study along with a section ensuringconfidentiality and anonymity was attached to each questionnaire. The respondentswere asked to complete the questionnaire and to respond to the three openended questions regarding the driving and resisting forces to Omani womenin management and to suggest on what can be done to promote women in managementin the Sultanate of Oman. (Questionnaire)

SUBJECTS

Subjects of this study constituted a sample of Omani female managersworking in the public (government) and private sectors. These subjects representsenior level of Omani women in the work force and occupy positions of directors,director generals, advisors to ministers, head of departments, assistantdeans and deans.

DATA ANALYSIS PROCEDURES

The researcher utilized descriptive and qualitative statistical methodsto describe, analyze and summarize the characteristics of the data collected.Descriptive analysis was used to show the composition of the populationin terms of age, marital status, number of children, academic qualification,place of post-secondary education, and total years of work experience. Qualitativeanalysis was used to summarize and present respondents' feedback on theopen ended questions regarding resisting and supporting factors to Omaniwomen in management in the Sultanate of Oman. Finally results from the dataanalysis and literature review was used to make recommendations on improvingthe status of women in management in the Sultanate of Oman.

A Perspective on Oman's Socio-economic and Educational Development

Hamoud (1993) writes, "the role of women in management cannot betreated in isolation from the general status of women in society, and fromthe general aims of economic, social and educational development "(p. 31). Education is the key to women's equality. This is particularly significantgiven that one out of three women is uneducated (UN, 1996). Therefore, priorto considering the role of Omani women in management, let us consider thefundamental question of opportunities for Omani women in the formal education.Access to education is one of the primary indicators of women's status ina given society, and therefore, is the root of women's emancipation. Inthis regard, the Sultanate of Oman is no exception.

Until 1970, Oman was a country that lagged behind socially and economically.The country lacked all sorts of public amenities and infrastructure suchas modern schools, hospitals, tarmac roads, electricity and water. Twenty-eightyears later, Oman has developed into a modern nation with both the infrastructureand the social organizations required to meet the needs of its people. Theavailability of oil revenues have made such a significant and rapid transformationpossible. The vision and leadership for such a change was directed by oneperson - His Majesty Sultan Qaboos bin Said Al-Said, ruler of the Sultanateof Oman since his accession in 1970. His Majesty has overseen the transformationof the Sultanate of Oman from a single economy, based upon rudimentary agricultureand fishing, to a modern and dynamic nation with a diversified economy.

A noteworthy catalyst for the above successful transformation is thedevelopment of education from primary to tertiary levels. Prior to 1970,education in Oman was confined to 3 primary schools with 900 boys, therewas no provision for the education of girls. Following the accession ofHis Majesty Sultan Qaboos in 1970, education has been made available toall Omani nationals (boys and girls on an equal ratio) under a program ofcontinuous and rapid expansion, the most recent stage of which was the openingof the co-educational Sultan Qaboos University in 1986. The availabilityof education (from primary to tertiary) for women has undoubtedly playeda crucial role towards the emancipation of Omani women. This achievementhas attracted the praise of a number of international magazines on women'sissues, one of which is the Indonesian Women's magazine (Observer, 1996).

Women in Management in the Sultanate of Oman

The implementation of socio-economic and educational plans during therenaissance period (1970-1998) has transformed the Omani society and economy.Undoubtedly, the development of human resources has been accorded particularimportance in this transformation with the inclusion of women on an equalbasis. This however, has not resulted in equal participation of women inthe workforce, despite an equal percentage of women in Oman's population.The results of the official population census taken in 1993 showed the Omanipopulation at 1,480,531. The statistics revealed that there were 755,071male Omanies and 725,460 female Omanies, giving almost a 50:50 ratio ofmen to women (Omani Census, 1993). The age distribution of the Omani populationis consistent with that of developing nations with almost 54% of the totalOmani population under the age of 15. The Profile of Labor force statisticsduring this period comprised of 274,411 Omani nationals of which only 24,007(9%) are Omani women (Table 1).

It can be observed from Table 1 that the Omani labor force structureis heavily male oriented. This however, should not mislead the reader intointerpreting the gender inequity in the labor force for reasons of lackof education and or job opportunities for women. Analysis of the Omani laborcomposition attributes this gender discrepancy to several economic and socialfactors. Some of the fundamental factors include traditional culture andattitudes coupled with values and stereotypes of the Omani woman as a wifeand mother as their primary role in the Omani society. Other factors relateto the type and nature of occupations which the labor market provides, theunsuitability of some of these occupations because of social customs andtraditions, or the short supply of some jobs which women normally prefer.This situation is expected to change with projections of the increased roleof women in the labor market caused by the steady increase in the educationof girls and the expectation that thousands of girls will complete variousstages of education in the coming years (Oman Statistical Year Book, 1996).

The profile of Omani women labor composition and employment structureis shown in Tables 2 and 3. This profile was prepared and presented by theGeneral Directorate for Women's and Children's Affairs, Ministry of SocialAffairs and Labor at the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, China.The statistics indicated that there were 17,946 women working in the governmentsector; 2,942 in the private sector and 3,119 who owned their own business.The profile of the government female employees indicates a heavy orientationtowards the service sector with the majority (59%) concentrated in the Ministryof Education followed by (22%) in the Ministry of Health and remaining (19%)distributed among other government sectors (Table 2).

With regards to senior executive and decision making positions in thegovernment sector, the Sultanate of Oman under the wise leadership and directivesof His Majesty Sultan Qaboos bin Said, has set precedence in the Arab Gulfregion by appointing Omani women in senior government positions. This undertakingwas epitomized by the recent appointment of four women in the 40 seat StateCouncil (State Council, 1997) (Table 3).

Table 3 shows the distribution of Omani women in the government sector'stop management and decision making positions. This includes 3 Deputy Ministers,4 members in the State Council (Majlis Aldawlah), 2 members in the ConsultativeCouncil (Majlis Alshu'ra), 4 in Senior Advisory positions, 13 in specialgrade, and 261 in Grade One (equivalent to Director & Director General).

Tables 2 and 3 concludes that Omani women are represented in all employmentsectors, be it government, private or their own business. Furthermore, unlikeits neighboring Arab Gulf countries, the Sultanate of Oman has catapultedwomen to unprecedented heights by appointing them to senior political positionsin Oman's Council and ministries. This reflects His Majesty's trust andconfidence in women's ability to manage and execute senior government positions.Consequently, the representation of Omani women (13%) in the ranks of seniorgovernment positions surpasses Western standards.

A Generic Framework for the Driving and Resisting Forces for Change

To begin with, it would be helpful to address a list of generic forcesas terms of reference in discussing the role of Omani women in managementpositions in the Sultanate of Oman. Such forces have been referred to quitefrequently by a number of writers on women's issues, for example (Dines,1993; Hammoud, 1994; Vinnicombe & Colwill, 1995).

The Driving Forces for Change in the Sultanate of Oman

There are ten major driving forces acting for change in the Sultanateof Oman: religion (Islam), national leadership, education, nationalization(Omanization), economy, General Directorate for Women's and Children's Affairs(Omani Women's Associations), women's leadership, favorable labor laws,family support and child care services, and changing women's attitudes.Each of these driving forces will be discussed and analyzed for its impact.Subsequently, strategies will be recommended to sustain and possibly strengthenthe impact.

Islam

Islam accords equal rights to men and women alike. In fact, Islam isthe key to women's emancipation and liberation. Islam does not forbid womenfrom seeking an education or from pursuing work. On the contrary, Islamencourages women to be educated, work, own property and engage in business. It has elevated the value and worth of a woman to an unprecedented statusin society. A role model to Muslim women is (Sitina) Khadija, the wife ofProphet Mohammed (PBUH), who successfully fulfilled the roles of a businesswoman, a wife and a mother.

The Muslim nations have elected three women Prime Ministers, namely BenazirBhutto of Pakistan, Khaleda Zia (presently Shaikha Hasina) of Bangladeshand Tansu Cillar of Turkey. These individuals were elected by male and femalevoters on their abilities as capable human beings, not as women. These electionshave demonstrated the true essence of Islam towards the role of women. Ithas refuted the distorted myth construed by social taboo that a woman'splace is in the house, and that it is socially unacceptable and dishonorablefor a Muslim woman to work. In her address to the Fourth World Conferenceon Women, Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto pleaded that "Muslim womenhave a special responsibility to help distinguish between Islamic teachingsand social taboos spun by the traditions of a patriarchal society"(p.1).

Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) encouraged Muslims, men and women alike, to seekand pursue knowledge. The Holy Koranic verses and Hadiths can be cited todemonstrate this fundamental right to knowledge. "Say: My Lord, increasemy knowledge" (Holy Koran xx: 1,14). "God will exalt to high ranksthose who believe among you, and those who have knowledge" (Holy Koranlv11: 11). "Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave" (Hadith)."The search for knowledge is a duty of every Muslim, male and female"(Hadith).

National Leadership

Since the dawn of the national renaissance in 1970, His Majesty SultanQaboos has repeatedly stated that Oman's crucial resource is its nationalhuman resources. This appeal does not preclude Omani women as proclaimedby His Majesty in His speech: "The education of girls is never absentfrom our mind, since women form half of our society." In recognitionof this fact, a full fledged commitment by the government of Oman has beenundertaken to educate, train and develop its national work force as a measuretowards nation building and economic development.

His majesty's drive towards development of national human resources isnot restricted to men, but applies equally to women. This is attested byequal educational and job opportunities. Omani women occupy different professionssuch as, medical doctors, lawyers, engineers, business leaders, and teachers.Omani women are found in the army and police, private and public sectors,and most importantly, in senior government positions.

To support the role of women, the Omani government has set a number ofprograms such as a network of modern health services and social servicesthroughout the country aimed at improving the advancement of women. Undoubtedly,Omani women have been liberated and accorded their respect as equal partnersin Omani society under the leadership of His Majesty, Sultan Qaboos.

Nationalization (Omanization)

The government of Oman is committed to nationalization (Omanization),a program that has been initiated by His Majesty to prepare Omani nationalsto take an active role in the workforce and to replace expatriates whereverpossible. With a labor force of 690,000 comprising 55% expatriates and 45%Omani nationals, the Sultanate is highly dependent on expatriates. Thispredicament has always been a concern of the government, and rigorous trainingand development programs have been enacted to promote nationalization inthe country.

The importance of developing the country's national human resources hasbeen one of the main aims and policies throughout the Sultanate's five yeardevelopment plans (Birks & Sinclair, 1980; Development Council, 1995).This aim is supported by several constructive policies and measures clearlydocumented in the development plan. For instance, the Fourth Five Year Developmentplan (1991-1995) has committed an initial allocation of Omani Rials 40 millionfor the implementation of the Omanization policies, in addition to appropriatingthe sum of Omani Rials 10 million to the Ministry of Civil Service towardsOmanization programs in the civil service domain (Development Council, 1993).

To this effect, legislation concerning employment contained in the OmaniLabor Law states that preference should be given to Omani nationals. Thismandate is enforced by the Government's Ministry of Social Affairs and Laborby specifying the ratio of Omanization to be achieved by the end of 1996in the private sector taking into account the number of Omani graduatesgraduating annually from the various educational institutes (Table 4).

Education

Education in Oman is a fundamental right for each and every Omani citizen.The importance of educating and developing the country's national humanresources has been one of the main aims and policies of His Majesty's government.In accordance with His Majesty's directives, a network of modern primaryand secondary education establishments for girls and boys has been extendedacross the whole country, catering to even remote villages. Educationalprogress has been phenomenal. By the 1994-95 academic year, there were atotal of 947 schools at the three levels of general education (primary,preparatory, and secondary) with 474, 288 students, half of which are girls.At the post-secondary level there are equal facilities for both males andfemales to pursue higher education and vocational training. This is providedboth domestically and internationally. Higher education facilities in Omaninclude one co-educational university, Sultan Qaboos University of whichmore than 50% of the student body are female, twelve intermediate teacherstraining colleges, two specialized institutes of health and banking, sixtechnical colleges and six vocational institutes (Sultanate of Oman StatisticalYear Book, 1995). Higher education in Oman caters equally to men and womenwithout discrimination. This educational development is indeed staggeringand deserves a noteworthy recognition, given that prior to 1970 there wereonly three elementary schools for boys and no facilities for girls.

General Directorate for Women's and Children's Affairs

The development, advancement and participation of Omani women as equalpartners in the country's socio-economic development has been supportedby many factors, one of which is the General Directorate for Women's andChildren's Affairs, formally established in 1985. Undoubtedly, a significantmove has been made by the government to enhance the status and role of womenin Oman's society. The Directorate, under the auspices of the Ministry ofSocial Affairs & Labor, has setup a network of Women's Development Centersthroughout the country, catering to rural and remote villages as well.

The general aims and mission of the Directorate is to set up programsfor the care of mothers and children, the eradication of illiteracy, education,the development of traditional and modern handicraft skills, the promotionof healthy and hygienic environment, the teaching of survival skills, andthe cultivation of women's minds and roles as citizens of a modern developingsociety.

Of significant importance and a positive precedent prior to the inceptionof the Directorate, is the voluntary social work of the Omani Women's Association,the first of its kind in the country founded in 1971. Managed as a not forprofit organization, the Omani Women's Association acts in collaborationwith the efforts and support of the government to carry out a great numberof activities aimed at improving and enhancing the role of Omani women insociety. Some of these activities include literacy classes, various handicraft skills, family care programs (day care centers, care for handicappedchildren, summer activities for girls, health awareness), social functions,organizing exhibitions to display the various work prepared by members ofthe association, intellectual and educational development through nationaland international women's conferences and meetings, and setting up workshopsto promote social and professional development. It is envisaged that theWomen's Association could be instrumental in providing a network for Omaniwomen in management, and to offer the much needed support for their developmentin the workplace.

Women's Leadership

Pursuant to the directives of His Majesty Sultan Qaboos Bin Said, nine Omani women have been appointed to senior government decision making positions.This includes: four women in the forty seat State Council (Majlis Aldawlah),two women in the eighty seat Consultative Council (Majlis Al'Shura) andthree women for the positions of Deputy Minister. In addition, Omani womenoccupy positions of Senior Advisors, Director Generals, and Directors inthe various government organizations. It is noteworthy to mention that Omaniwomen are represented in the Faculty Profile (Academic Staff) of SultanQaboos University as well as representation of Medical Staff (Medical Doctors)in hospitals all over the country.

The Consultative Council was set up in November 1991 under the directiveof His Majesty Sultan Qaboos bin Said. It holds the position of a parliamentand is based on Islamic religious law and procedures. Since its inception,it has assumed a practical role in assisting the government in all importantmatters relating to social and economic issues. Although under-represented,with only two women among the eighty elected members, this is considereda major development for women and a great opportunity for Omani women tobe a part of the decision making body representing the people of Oman.

In December 1997, His Majesty Sultan Qaboos Bin Said inaugurated theCouncil of Oman comprising the newly formed State Council along with thepre-established Consultative Council. The forty seat State Council withfour women representatives is yet another progressive step in the consultative(Shura) process, that works in conjunction with the Majlis Alshura for achievingthe nation's social and economic goals (Majlis Aldawlah, 1997).

National Economy

Since the accession of Sultan Qaboos to power in 1970, His Majesty haspursued a vigorous policy for economic and social development which hasbeen facilitated by revenues generated from oil export (Sultanate of Oman,1975). Oman's economy has been transformed from one that was based mainlyon subsistence agriculture and fisheries to one that is oil based with allthe modern facilities and infrastructure. Subsequently, the Omani societyemerged from one that was lagging behind socially, culturally and economically;to one that is educated, enlightened ,and endowed with modern social facilities.The availability of oil revenues has made it possible for Oman to developits economy, educate its people and offer a relatively comfortable standardof living. This however, has not rendered a total reliance and dependenceon oil revenues, rather the government of Oman has been pursuing economicdiversification and privatization programs as a measure of maintaining aviable and sustainable economy for its people.

Favorable Labor Laws

Omani women are accorded favorable labor laws which serve to protecttheir rights and ensure equality in the workplace. Employment in Oman doesnot discriminate on gender and exercises a sound policy of equal employmentopportunity and equal pay act. An entire section in the Oman Labor Law isdedicated to the employment of women. For example, Articles 80 to 82 inthe Oman Labor Law clearly safe guard the rights and working conditionsof Omani women (Oman Labor Law). These articles spell out special advantagesand support granted to working women in areas such as maternity and widowhoodleave entitlements (each is six weeks leave), and a special provision thatallows working women to request leave of absence (up to four years) withoutpay to accompany a spouse who is posted abroad. Working mothers who returnto work while continuing to breast feed are allowed to leave work an hourearly each day for six months to feed their babies.

The working hours in the government (public) sector are conducive toworking women. Government employees work from 7:30 a.m. - 2:30 p.m. Saturdaythrough Wednesday, and Thursday and Friday are days off from work. Suchworking hours allow parents, particularly working mothers, to spend timewith their children.

Family Support and Child-care Services

Omani women enjoy a wide range of child-care support services. Theserange from family support to professional services such as affordable housemaid/nannyand child-care centers (nurseries). The Omani society is based on strongfamily ties. The centrality of the family accompanied by close relationshipsmakes it possible for parents or parents-in-law of working women to helpwith child care.

Working women can also avail themselves with a host of day-care centersand nurseries. These facilities are available through out the country witha higher concentration in the capital area to cater to the larger populationof working women.

Changing Women's Attitudes

The aforementioned factors have contributed immensely in influencingwomen's attitudes towards their role in a modern developing Arab society. In an interview with ten top women managers in Bahrain and Dubai about theirwork and its challenges, Wilkinson (1996) affirms that "women who havesucceeded in business anywhere are controversial figures, and the Arab Gulfis no exception to this rule (p. 22). These women who have successfullymade it to top management positions either as entrepreneurs and owners oftheir business or managers of major companies have stated that the drivingforce behind their success includes: family support, educational opportunity,academic success, job opportunity, determination, inner drive for success,qualities and attributes conducive to successful management, ability tohandle multiple tasks, and self- confidence. The challenges faced by thesewomen were overt discrimination at work, cultural taboos, negative attitudetoward working women, and lack of confidence and trust in women managers.

In Oman, the availability and accessibility to all levels of educationalong with equal opportunities in the job market has not only emancipatedthe Omani woman but equally accorded her individual rights and respect asan equal partner in the Omani society. This is substantiated by informalinterviews with some of the professional Omani women working in governmentand private sectors. These women who have successfully progressed to managementpositions attribute their achievements to accessibility to equal educationaland job opportunities coupled with their perseverance in committing themselvesto their jobs and career progression. In this regard, one of the respondentssaid, "Making it to the top is not easy. It takes a lot of hard work,patience, commitment, sacrifice and trade-off; however, the opportunityis there for those women who aspire to become managers and are willing andable to maintain multiple roles."

The Resisting Forces for Change in the Sultanate of Oman

This case study does not imply a presence of a "utopia" forwomen in the Omani society. Arab nations in particular, provide differentforms of deterrents which prevent women's progress and development. Someof these deterrents include a generic stereotype of Arab women reflectedby Muslim societies, particularly men, with regard to a woman's role asmother. Negative male attitudes also prevail professional working women.There is an unspoken "silent" policy of discrimination againstwomen at work, the presence of a "Glass Ceiling" preventing women'saccessibility to top management positions, absence of a professional women'snetwork, lack of professional management training programs for women, andlack of affirmative action for promoting and ensuring women's presentationin the labor force as well as in management positions.

Traditional Attitudes and Stereotypes

Although gradually changing among the more educated modern Arab/Islamicsocieties, conservative Arab societies hold traditional socio-cultural stereotypesand attitudes about the role of women. These conservative and traditionalattitudes highlighted in the literature of women in the Muslim world byMagharabi, Al-Dabbagh & Hayajneh, (1994); Bech (1994); and Al-Hatimy(1983) portray women's primary role as a wife and mother. Women are notnecessarily looked upon as having the abilities and potential for developingprofessional careers. They are portrayed as being inferior to men, naturallyemotional and unsuitable for leadership positions (Hammoud,1993). Such conservativeattitudes negate the concept of professional working women in traditionalArab societies, the idea of women working is degrading and a disgrace tosome Arab men who consider that it is their responsibility to provide fortheir wives and family. Therefore, traditional Arab/Islamic societies maintainthat first and foremost, women should prepare themselves for a domesticcareer of being a wife and mother. Work should only be considered as a lastoption under extraneous conditions and circumstances.

The above attitude tends to have a spillover effect at work, wherebymale employers regard women as being less capable then men and unfit forresponsible positions, claiming that their family obligations take priority;and hence, subjects them to lower productivity and absenteeism (Beck, 1994;Hammoud, 1993). This negative attitude and traditional stereotype towardswomen in Arab/Islamic societies has been, and still is, a major resistingforce to progress for professional working women, particularly for thosein management.

Portrayed Self-image of Women

The inferior self-image of women becomes difficult to overcome consideringthat it is ingrained and conditioned in their upbringing and social development(Hunsaker & Hunsaker, 1991; Hennig & Jardim, 1977). In traditionalArab-Islamic patriarchal societies, the feminine gender is subordinate,while the masculine is superior and dominant (Magharabi et.al., 1994; Bech,1994; Hammoud, 1993; Allaghi & Almana, 1984; Gerner, 1984; Al-Hatimy1983). Generally, men are held responsible for providing the necessitiesof life, thus to work outside the home. On the other hand, women are expectedto serve their husbands and children at home, especially since women arenot required by the Islamic law (Shari'a) to financially support the family.In this subordinate position, women become victims of their own gender (Mernissi,1985, Rassam, 1984). Hammoud's (1993) dynamic study on the role of womenin higher education management in the Arab region confers that the mostfatal obstacle which prevents women from realizing their utmost professionalachievement is the self-image of a woman portrayed as inferior to men, incapableof being socially and financially independent, and hence depends on theman to care for and protect them.

Studies in the Gulf countries by Allaghi & Almana (1984) and Osseiran(1989) reflect women's inferior self-image. Results indicate 50% of thefemale students surveyed believe that the husband should have the "finalword", that women should obey their husbands, and that a husband'seducation should be higher than that of his wife. With regard to work, itwas felt that women should only work in the traditional professions suchas teaching and nursing. There was a strong preference towards jobs thatdo not require women to mix with men. The Khattab and El-Daif (1984) studyin Cairo revealed that 66% of female students stated that women with childrenshould stop work; 41% maintained that teaching and social work are the mostappropriate jobs for women; and the majority believed that women shouldonly work as an economic necessity.

Human Resource Policies and Strategies

The lack of proper human resource policies and strategies addressingwomen workers has proven to be a major obstacle to women's progress anddevelopment. For instance, in the USA, women's rights have not merely evolvedfrom vacuum; rather, advocates of women's rights in America applied theCivil Rights law to fight sex discrimination at work and to demand equalrights. This struggle resulted in what is known as 'Affirmative Action'at the workplace (Vinnicombe, 1995; Hannig & Jardim, 1977).

Only nine percent (9% ) of the Omani workforce are women. The majorityof these workers are concentrated in the lower echelons of the organizationalhierarchy with a small percentage in decision making positions. In Oman,the absence of human resource policies and strategies to promote the recruitmentand development of female managers at work is a deterrent to gender diversity.The work environment and culture are not conducive to promoting women inmanagement. This acts as a 'glass ceiling" preventing women's accessibilityto top management positions. For example, there are no programs to facilitatethe advancement of women as role models, absence of mentoring programs,lack of management training programs, and shunning of affirmative action.

Lack of Professional a Women's Network

The lack of a professional women's network in Oman creates a major voidfor women aspiring to professional managerial positions. The absence ofa female mentor-protégé relationship makes it difficult forwomen to develop the requisite attitude, skills and abilities for leadershipand management positions. This results in a disparate situation and a stateof confusion; because after all, women are entering a male dominated domaincoupled with a traditional value system and a culture that tends to shunwomen from pursuing management careers.

Presentation and Analysis of the Data

Sixty questionnaires were dispatched to a random sample of Omani Womenin management positions in the Sultanate of Oman. The response rate wasextremely slow and tedious. Except for a few, the majority of the respondentswere not cooperative. Many repeated telephone calls along with remindersto solicit their feedback were necessary. This is quite understandable inthis part of the world whereby information and research are a foreign phenomenonand not the norm. People are not necessarily comfortable with the idea ofexpressing their opinion honestly and freely. An element of inhibition exists.Therefore, of the 60 questionnaires distributed, 32 questionnaires werereturned for a response rate of 53%.

Personal Characteristics of the Respondents

A summary of the personal and professional characteristics of the respondentsis displayed in Tables 5 through 11. The distribution of respondents byage is shown in Table 5. Of the 32 respondents surveyed in this study, thehighest distribution of 15 (47%) were in the age bracket (35 - 44) followedby 11 (34%) in the (25 - 34) age bracket and 6 (19%) in the (45 - 54) agebracket (Table 5).

The distribution of respondents by marital status is shown in Table 6.The majority of the respondents 27 (84%) were married leaving 5 (16%) single(Table 6).

Table 7 depicts the distribution of respondents by number of children.The highest concentration was 18 (56%) having (1 - 3) children, followedby 8 (25%) with (4 - 6) children and 6 (19%) with no children (Table 7).

The distribution of respondents by academic qualification is shown inTable 8. Eighteen (56%) of the respondents received Bachelors degrees, followedby 9 (28%) with Masters and 5 (16%) with Doctorates (Table 8).

Table 9 summarizes the distribution of respondents by place of post-secondaryeducation. Fifteen (47%) of the respondents received their post-secondaryeducation in the Arab World (East) and 17 (53%) in Western universities(West) (Table 9).

The distribution of respondents by place of employment is shown in Table10. The majority of 24 (75%) of the respondents worked for the government(public sector) and 8 (25%) worked for the private sector (Table 10).

Table 11summarizes the personal opinion of the respondents on whetheror not resisting forces outweigh driving forces to Omani women in management.Fifteen (47%) of the respondents felt that resisting forces outweighed drivingforces to Omani women in management, while 17 (53%) felt that there wereno such imbalances (Table 11).

Analysis of Respondent's Personal Opinion on Omani Women in Management

As indicated in Table 11, fifteen (47%) of the respondents felt thatresisting forces outweighed driving forces to Omani Women in managementpositions. It appears that these women chose to be critical and sorted outthis opportunity to voice their issues of concern on women in managementin the Sultanate of Oman. In their comments, these women acknowledge andrealize that the government of Oman has made available to Omani women anarray of social and economic factors (driving forces) to improve their statusin the Omani society, but it was felt that women still remain victims ofdiscrimination (resisting forces) by the prevalent male dominated culture.For example, some of the respondents stated that "merely being a womanis a major obstacle towards professional development." Other commentsinclude:

- "higher management is dominated by males who tend not to takewomen seriously professionally."

- "not having the social back-up nor the network needed to encourageand promote women in management positions."

- "feeling of inferiority complex towards men in the managementcadre."

- "traditional values and culture discourage women from pursuingprofessional and management positions."

- "conflicting roles of being a domesticated wife and mother, andthat of professional woman."

In general, women in this category indicated that the resisting forcesto women in management include: limited opportunities to higher education,discriminatory appointment and promotion practices, traditional attitudesof male bosses towards working women, male dominated domain, male resistanceto women in management, absence of policies and legislation to ensure participationof women in management positions, lack of professional networking, lackof female role models, lack of professional management development programs,lack of sufficient number of quality day-care centers, dual responsibilitiesof traditional and professional roles, balancing traditional and professionalroles, and family obligations as a wife and a mother for child-bearing andchild-rearing.

Coincidentally, considerable similarity existed between the respondentsopinion and the generic resisting forces for change in the Sultanate ofOman. The most common issues of concern are related to cultural attitudes,traditional values and stereotypes of the status and role of women in Arab-Islamicsocieties. The respondents felt that the social and cultural perceptionof Omani women's role was that of a domesticated wife and mother with primaryresponsibility towards families.

On the other hand, the remaining seventeen (53%) of the respondents whohave ruled out that resisting forces outweigh supportive forces to Omaniwomen in management positions supported their views with the following factors.Women in this category felt that although resisting forces existed whichare primarily male dominated traditional social and culture attitudes andstereotypes of Omani women, such forces were balanced out and in some casesoutweighed by supportive forces. These women have concentrated on the positivefactors attested by the following comments:

- "Omani women get best education as men so that they can work alongside men and their place is not limited to their homes."

- "Omani women have proven their abilities to succeed academicallyand professionally."

- "Omani women are more devoted to their duties and carry out theirresponsibilities diligently and conscientiously."

- "the government has set up the Directorate General of women andchild affairs which has made steady progress in uplifting women socially,economically and educationally."

In general, women in this category indicated that the driving forcesbehind their success include: first and foremost family support from theirparents and spouse, determination and inner drive for success, opportunitiesfor access to all levels of education and academic achievement, self confidence,diligence and perseverance, job opportunities and potential for professionalgrowth and development.

DISCUSSIONS

The following have been extrapolated from this study. First, Omani women'slabor force participation rates are very low, representing only nine percent(9%) of the Omani labor force and only four percent (4%) of the total laborforce. Analysis of the gender inequity in the labor force attributes thisdiscrepancy to a number of social and cultural factors. Some of the primarydeterrents include traditional values and attitudes towards women. Theseattitudes portray women's primary role as a wife and mother. Other factorsrelate to the type and nature of occupations which the labor market provides,the unsuitability of some of these occupations because of social customsand traditions, or the short supply of some jobs which women normally prefer(Oman Statistical Year Book, 1996). This situation is expected to changewith projections of the increased role of women in the labor market causedby change of attitudes towards working women as well as accessibility tojobs in the various sectors of the market.

Analysis of respondents' personal opinions on Omani women in managementin the Sultanate of Oman indicated the presence of an array of resistingforces (obstacles) to management positions. All respondents confirmed thatresisting forces to management positions exist for Omani women. Forty sevenpercent (47%) of the respondents confirmed that resisting forces outweighdriving forces, whereas the remaining (53%) indicated that while resistingforces exist, it was felt that the driving forces balanced out, or at timesoutweighed, the resisting forces to Omani women in management positions.

In summary, some of the primary resisting forces to Omani women in managementare related to cultural and traditional values coupled with traditionalstereotypes on the status and role of women in Arab-Islamic societies. Respondentsindicated that the cultural perceptions of women's roles were those of adomesticated wife and mother with primary responsibility towards family.They felt that this traditional attitude towards women tends to have a spillovereffect at work, whereby predominantly male employers regard women as beingless capable than men and unfit for responsible positions, particularlythose in management. Other resisting forces (obstacles) to women in managementinclude limited opportunities for higher education, discriminatory appointmentand promotion practices, the unspoken "silent" policy of discriminationagainst women at work, traditional attitudes of male bosses, male dominateddomains, the absence of policies and legislation to ensure participationof women in management, lack of professional management training programsfor women, lack of professional networking, lack of female role models,and the balancing of traditional and professional roles.

On the other hand, respondents who claimed that the driving forces balanceout resisting forces to Omani women in management supported their positionwith the following comments:

- "support and encouragement from national leadership."

- "equal access to education and employment opportunities."

- "family support and child-care services."

- "self-confidence."

- "determination and inner drive for success."

RECOMMENDATIONS

The findings of this study clearly indicate that while in principle,women in Oman have been accorded equal educational and employment rights;in practice, discrimination against women exists in the workplace. Thissituation is made more difficult for women who aspire to be in managementpositions. Several of the respondents have articulated that "merelybeing a woman" is a major obstacle to professional development. Themajority of the respondents, confirmed that much more needs to be done toovercome barriers to the full participation of Omani women in managementpositions.

In view of the literature review and this case study analysis on Omaniwomen in management positions, the following strategies have been recommendedto promote women into management positions.

Access to General and Higher Education

First and foremost, it is recommended that the government continue itsefforts to maintain and sustain equal access to educational opportunitiesat general and post-secondary levels. Since education is the major drivingforce for the improvement of women's status, and since links between employmentand professional qualifications are decisive, it is urged that educationalopportunities to Omani women should never be compromised, but rather beimproved. Meanwhile, special measures should be undertaken to encourageand promote women's access to scientific, managerial, technical, and vocationaldisciplines in order to develop the requisite skills and extend their opportunitiesfor employment in non-traditional occupations.

Women represent fifty percent (50%) of the Omani population, therefore,the government is urged to tap this vital resource in order to capitalizethe full potential of contribution towards national economic developmentand prosperity.

Positively Influence Traditional Attitudes and Stereotypes

Attitudinal change needs action on the fore-front. Traditional attitudesand stereotypes received highest attention by the respondents, and was unanimouslyconsidered a primary resisting force to women in management positions. Thereis a dire need to positively influence male traditional attitudes towardswomen in modern developing Arab-Islamic societies. Consequently, there alsois a need to significantly change the attitudes of senior male managerswho are apt not to take women manager careers seriously. Hence, a professionalcareer should be viewed according to individual merit, i.e. aptitudes andqualifications, and not on the basis of gender. Women have already proventheir success in many professional endeavors. Special efforts are neededto modify these attitudes through social awareness programs promoting awoman's legal right to study, work, and participate in all aspects of developmentat all levels.

Human Resource Policies and Strategies

Given that only nine percent (9%) of the Omani labor force are women,there is a need to promote and encourage Omani women to join the work forcethrough a mechanism of affirmative action and equal job opportunities. Itis necessary to institute awareness programs of employment opportunitiesand benefits to Omani women in all the different regions of Oman. This canbe achieved through the utilization of the local media as a means for promotingthe role of working women in the workplace. At the international level,utilization of international media such as "Arabsat" can be usedto transmit programs that promote the value and roles of Arab women in achanging society and their integration in the development process. Othermeasures include enacting policies and legislation to ensure the representationand participation of Omani women in management positions, as well as settingup quota systems to ensure the employment and representation of women inthe workforce. Accordingly, it is recommended to establish Human ResourcePolicies and Strategies to execute and orchestrate the recruitment, training& development, and promotion of Omani women to management positions.

Professional Women's Network and Leadership

The General Directorate for Women's and Children's Affairs along withthe Omani Women's Society should play a proactive role in encouraging andpromoting professional Omani women through awareness of female role modelsin leadership positions, organizing professional management & leadershiptraining programs, and establishing a network for Omani women in management(for example, Omani Women Management Society). Subsequently, it is importantthat these professional women's associations work on overcoming the inferiorself-image of women in traditional male- dominated patriarchal societies.There is a need to instill a feeling of security, self-esteem and credibilityamongst women. Omani women should be made to feel confident in themselvesand to be able to persevere against all odds. They should be accorded self-respectand trust in their ability and capacity to fulfill domestic roles as wellas professional roles. There is a need to highlight and discuss the inherentfeminine leadership qualities of women and their favored application intoday's decentralized and flattened hierarchical organization structures.

Support Facilities and Infrastructure

It is difficult to dispute the hardship and challenge of managing multipleroles. Professional women are faced with the challenge of maintaining houseworkand family and a professional career. In response to such challenges, specialattention should be directed to the provision of a social infrastructurethat will enable women to work, such as professional day care centers onsite, kindergartens, and adequate maternity leave. The availability of suchsupport services is a tangible expression of organizational recognitionof the needs of professional women. Consequently, it undoubtedly can makea great difference to the capacity of women to manage multiple roles.

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Dr. Salma M. Al-Lamki is a professor in the Collegeof Commerce and Economics at the Sultan Qaboos University in the Sultanateof Oman.

cce3370@squ.edu.om

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AWL Journal Volume 2, Number 2, Spring 1999